Metal halide UV lamps have been workhorses of industrial adhesive curing for decades. Their ability to deliver high-intensity, broadband UV across large areas made them the standard for conveyor curing systems and high-throughput flood applications. When engineers consider replacing them with UV LED systems, the question is not simply whether LEDs can produce enough UV — it is what specifically changes in the cure process, and which of those changes require engineering attention before the first production run. How Metal Halide Lamps Work Metal halide UV lamps are a variant of the mercury arc lamp in which metal halide salts — iron, gallium, indium, or other metals depending on the formulation — are added to the mercury vapor fill. As the arc heats the lamp envelope, the halide salts vaporize and their metal atoms are dissociated from the halide carrier. These free metal atoms contribute additional emission lines to the mercury baseline spectrum, filling in the gaps between mercury's characteristic lines and producing a broader, more continuous UV output. The resulting spectrum spans from approximately 280 nm through 450 nm, with intensity distributed more evenly across the UV range than a standard mercury arc lamp. This broad output efficiently activates a wide range of photoinitiator systems, including those with absorption peaks between mercury's principal emission lines. What Changes: Spectral Profile The most significant change when moving from metal halide to UV LED is the spectral profile. A metal halide lamp delivers photons at dozens of wavelengths simultaneously. A UV LED delivers photons at one narrow peak. For adhesives specifically formulated for metal halide curing — with photoinitiator blends designed to absorb across the broad metal halide spectrum — a single-wavelength LED may activate only a fraction of the photoinitiator system, a mismatch explained in more detail in how UV photoinitiators respond to LED vs mercury lamp output. This can manifest as slower cure rates requiring longer exposure times, incomplete surface cure that leaves tack even at adequate total dose, or reduced through-cure in thick bondlines where different photoinitiators handled different depth zones. Process engineers migrating from metal halide should expect to re-evaluate adhesive compatibility for every product line affected. In many cases, the LED-compatible replacement adhesive exists and performs equivalently; in a minority of cases, a dual-wavelength UV LED system or adhesive reformulation is required. What Changes: Irradiance and Working Distance Metal halide conveyor lamps are typically mounted at working distances of 75–200 mm from the conveyor surface, delivering 100–500 mW/cm² of UV irradiance across the cure zone. UV LED flood systems designed for conveyor applications operate at working distances of 25–75 mm to achieve comparable irradiance over similar cure areas. This shorter working distance requirement for UV LEDs changes conveyor system geometry. The lamp head must be positioned closer to the product, which may require modifications to the conveyor housing, changes to the maximum product height allowed in the cure zone, and reconfiguration of part loading if tall assemblies are currently processed. In most conveyor modernization projects, the working…

The migration from mercury vapor UV lamps to UV LED systems in manufacturing is not driven by a single factor. It is a convergence of regulatory pressure, cost economics, process performance advantages, and the maturation of LED technology to a point where it can meet industrial curing requirements that were unachievable a decade ago. Understanding why this transition is accelerating — and why it has gone further in some industries than others — gives manufacturers the context to evaluate when and how to make the change in their own processes. Regulatory Pressure on Mercury The Minamata Convention on Mercury, an international treaty that took effect in 2017, commits signatory nations to phasing out or reducing mercury use across a broad range of products and industrial applications. The European Union's RoHS Directive restricts mercury in electrical and electronic equipment. Disposal regulations for mercury-containing waste — which includes spent UV arc lamps — impose handling, documentation, and cost requirements in most industrial jurisdictions. For manufacturers with global supply chains and customers in regulated markets, the regulatory trajectory on mercury is clear: restrictions will increase, not decrease. Transitioning to UV LED systems — which contain no mercury — removes this regulatory exposure from the production process and from the product supply chain. The regulatory argument alone is not always sufficient to justify a capital equipment transition, but it significantly lowers the threshold when combined with operational and economic factors. Reduced Maintenance and Downtime Mercury vapor UV lamps have operational lifetimes typically in the range of 1,000–2,000 hours. In a production environment running two shifts per day, this translates to a lamp replacement every few months. Each replacement requires procurement of new bulbs, safe handling and disposal of the mercury-containing spent lamp, housing cleaning, and verification of restored performance — a maintenance event that interrupts production and requires trained personnel. UV LED systems have rated operational lifetimes of 10,000–25,000 hours. The same two-shift production environment that required quarterly mercury lamp replacements may run UV LED systems for several years before scheduled maintenance is required. This reduction in maintenance frequency directly reduces production interruptions, labor costs, and the procurement overhead associated with managing lamp inventory. For high-volume production lines where uptime is directly tied to revenue, this maintenance interval difference has measurable economic value that frequently justifies the higher initial capital cost of UV LED equipment. Instant-On Operation and Process Control Mercury vapor lamps require minutes of warm-up before delivering stable output, and they cannot be switched rapidly without electrode degradation. In practice, they run continuously during production shifts, with shutters or lamp positioning controlling UV exposure at the assembly. This means the lamp consumes full power during all non-curing intervals — waiting, loading, unloading, and inspection periods. UV LEDs reach rated output in milliseconds and can cycle on and off indefinitely without degradation. This cure-on-demand operation — where the lamp fires only during active curing — reduces energy consumption proportionally to the cure duty cycle. In operations where cure time is 2 seconds out…

The question itself contains a trap. "Better" depends entirely on what the process requires — the adhesive chemistry, the assembly geometry, the production volume, the regulatory environment, and the total cost horizon. Engineers who evaluate UV LED and mercury arc lamps against a single criterion usually end up with the wrong answer. A structured comparison across the dimensions that actually matter reveals a more nuanced picture, and one that increasingly favors UV LED in the majority of new manufacturing applications. Spectral Output: The Foundation of the Comparison Mercury arc lamps generate UV light through gas discharge, producing emission peaks at multiple wavelengths — primarily 254, 313, 334, 365, 405, and 436 nm — plus a continuous underlying spectrum and significant infrared output. This broad spectral profile activates a wide range of photoinitiators simultaneously. UV LEDs emit at a single, narrow peak — typically 10–20 nm wide — centered at a selected wavelength (most commonly 365, 385, 395, or 405 nm for adhesive curing). Only the portion of the adhesive's photoinitiator absorption spectrum that overlaps with this narrow peak is activated. For adhesives formulated for mercury lamp curing, this spectral difference can require either a wavelength-compatible LED selection or adhesive reformulation, a mismatch explored further in how UV photoinitiators respond to LED vs mercury lamp output. For adhesives designed specifically for LED curing — a growing category — the narrow LED spectrum is not a limitation; it is a precisely matched input. Irradiance at the Cure Surface Modern UV LED spot lamp systems routinely deliver 3,000–8,000 mW/cm² at the cure surface through a light guide. High-power UV LED flood systems achieve 1,000–4,000 mW/cm² across large cure zones. Mercury arc spot lamp systems typically deliver 1,000–5,000 mW/cm² at the light guide exit, with irradiance dropping at the cure surface due to optical losses and working distance. At equivalent irradiance, UV LEDs and mercury arc lamps produce equivalent cure rates in adhesives with compatible photoinitiator chemistry. The irradiance advantage is not inherently one-sided — both technologies can deliver the intensities required for most industrial adhesive curing applications. Thermal Load on the Assembly Mercury arc lamps emit substantial infrared radiation alongside their UV output. The infrared component heats the cure surface, the adhesive, and any assembly components within the lamp's field. For heat-sensitive assemblies — flexible substrates, thermochromic materials, optoelectronic components — this thermal input is a process risk that requires management through shutter timing, distance control, or filtered optics. UV LEDs produce negligible infrared output. The heat generated in the LED array is managed within the lamp's thermal system and does not reach the cure surface as infrared radiation. Thermal load on the assembly comes only from UV photon absorption — a significantly lower input than mercury lamp infrared emission. For heat-sensitive assemblies, this is a meaningful process advantage. Operational Characteristics Mercury arc lamps require 3–10 minutes of warm-up time after ignition before reaching stable output. They cannot be rapidly switched on and off — doing so stresses the electrodes and shortens lamp…

There is a ceiling on how much UV power a spot lamp can concentrate onto a small area, and no amount of optical engineering can overcome it. This ceiling exists because of a conserved quantity in optics called etendue — and understanding it resolves a category of questions that confuse engineers new to UV curing system design: why can't a brighter LED be used to achieve a brighter spot? Why does adding lenses not always increase irradiance? And why does a larger light guide not automatically produce more power at the cure surface? What Etendue Is Etendue (pronounced ay-TAHN-doo) is a measure of the spatial extent and angular divergence of a light beam combined into a single quantity: the source area multiplied by the solid angle of the emission cone, which is set by the numerical aperture of the optic. Etendue has a critical property: in a lossless optical system, it can never decrease. Lenses, mirrors, and light guides can redistribute light — trading area for angle — but they cannot reduce total etendue. In real systems with optical losses, etendue can only stay the same or increase. The Consequence for Spot Lamp Design For a UV LED emitting from a given chip area with a given emission angle, the etendue of its output is fixed. The optical system — light guide, coupling lenses, cure head optics — can transform this etendue (large area/small angle in one configuration, small area/large angle in another) but cannot reduce it. This means there is a fundamental limit to how small a spot can be produced at the cure surface while maintaining a given total power: reducing spot size requires increasing beam divergence, which reduces irradiance per unit area as the cone angle steepens. More concretely: if a UV LED has a chip area of 1 mm² and emits into a 90° full-angle cone, attempting to focus this output to a 0.1 mm² spot with a lens would require the exit beam to carry 10 times the original etendue — physically impossible without loss. Why Brighter LEDs Do Not Always Solve the Problem Increasing LED power — a higher-drive-current chip or a larger array — increases total emitted UV power. But if the chip is larger to accommodate that power, its source area increases, and so does its etendue. A 4× higher-power LED with 4× the chip area has 4× the etendue but not 4× the radiance (power per unit area per unit solid angle, also called brightness). Radiance — not total power — is the quantity that determines how bright a spot can be at the cure surface, a distinction covered in more depth in how UV LED spot lamps deliver pinpoint curing accuracy. The relevant figure of merit for spot lamp use is therefore radiance — watts per square millimeter per steradian — not rated total power. Etendue and Light Guide Coupling When a UV LED is coupled to a light guide, the etendue of the LED must fit within the etendue…

The transition from mercury arc and metal halide lamps to UV LEDs in industrial curing is not simply an upgrade from one version of a technology to the next — these are fundamentally different approaches to generating ultraviolet light. The differences between them, in spectral output, operational behavior, thermal characteristics, and long-term cost, matter to every engineer who specifies, operates, or maintains UV curing equipment. How Mercury Arc and Metal Halide Lamps Work Mercury arc lamps generate UV light through gas discharge. A sealed quartz envelope contains mercury vapor at controlled pressure. When high voltage strikes an arc between electrodes at each end of the envelope, the arc heats the mercury vapor, causing mercury atoms to transition to excited electronic states. As they return to ground state, they emit light at characteristic mercury emission lines — discrete wavelengths determined by mercury's electronic structure, primarily at 254, 303, 313, 334, 365, 405, and 436 nm. Metal halide lamps modify this process by adding metal halide salts to the mercury vapor. As the arc heats the lamp, these salts vaporize and their metal atoms contribute additional emission lines, broadening the spectral output into a more continuous spectrum extending from below 300 nm through the visible range. Both lamp types require several minutes to reach stable output after ignition, since the mercury vapor must reach operating temperature and pressure. They cannot be switched rapidly on and off without destabilizing the arc or stressing the electrodes, so between production cycles they are typically left on, idling at lower power, rather than switched off. How UV LEDs Work UV LEDs generate light through electroluminescence at a semiconductor junction. When electrical current flows through the junction, electrons and holes recombine and release energy as photons. The photon energy, and thus the emission wavelength, is determined by the semiconductor's bandgap energy — a fixed material property. The result is a narrow-band, single-peak emission spectrum: typically 10–20 nm wide at half-maximum, centered on the designed emission wavelength — see our comparison of 365nm, 385nm, 395nm, and 405nm UV LED wavelengths for how the choice affects cure performance. There are no secondary emission lines, no infrared peaks, and no visible light emission at other wavelengths. UV LEDs reach full output in milliseconds from a cold start and can be switched on and off thousands of times per day without electrode degradation or arc destabilization, since there is no arc to destabilize. Spectral Output Comparison This is the most fundamental difference between the technologies: mercury arc lamps produce a multi-line spectrum spanning from deep UV through the visible range, while UV LEDs produce a single, narrow peak. For adhesives formulated for mercury lamp curing, this matters significantly. A mercury lamp activates photoinitiators across a broad absorption range simultaneously — a single lamp can drive reactions in photoinitiators absorbing at 313, 334, and 365 nm at the same time. A 365 nm UV LED activates only the portion of the photoinitiator's absorption spectrum overlapping its narrow emission peak, which is why…

Most UV LED curing applications operate at a single wavelength — select the LED emission peak that matches the adhesive's photoinitiator, deliver it at the required irradiance, and the chemistry does the rest. But some adhesive formulations, some assembly geometries, and some quality requirements push past what a single wavelength can reliably provide. Dual-wavelength UV LED systems address these cases, and understanding when they are actually necessary — rather than simply more complex — prevents over-engineering simple applications while identifying the situations where they deliver real process benefits. What Dual-Wavelength Systems Are A dual-wavelength UV LED curing system combines LED arrays at two different emission peaks in a single lamp head or in coordinated lamp heads. The two wavelengths illuminate the cure area simultaneously (or in a defined sequence), each contributing photons at its characteristic energy level to the photochemical reactions in the adhesive. Common wavelength pairings include 365 nm + 405 nm, 365 nm + 395 nm, and 385 nm + 405 nm — see our 365nm vs 385nm vs 395nm vs 405nm wavelength comparison for how each performs individually. The specific pairing is selected based on the adhesive formulation's photoinitiator system — the two wavelengths must correspond to the absorption peaks of two different photoinitiators or sensitizers in the adhesive. The UV LED controller manages drive current to each LED array independently, allowing the power ratio between the two wavelengths to be adjusted for specific applications or adhesive requirements. Why Some Adhesives Require Two Wavelengths UV-curable adhesives that benefit from dual-wavelength curing typically contain two distinct photoinitiator systems with absorption peaks at different wavelengths. These dual-photoinitiator formulations are designed to provide complementary photochemical functions: Surface cure vs. through-cure: A short-wavelength photoinitiator (such as one absorbing primarily at 365 nm) may provide aggressive initiation at the adhesive surface — where it is absorbed rapidly — while a longer-wavelength photoinitiator (absorbing at 395 or 405 nm, with longer mean free path before absorption) initiates polymerization deeper into the adhesive layer. Together, they promote more uniform cure from surface to depth in thick bondlines or pigmented adhesives. Fast initiation vs. shadow cure: Some formulations use one photoinitiator for rapid initial cure under direct UV illumination and a second photoinitiator (often a cationic type activated at a different wavelength) that continues reacting in shadow zones after UV exposure ends. The cationic component's post-exposure reaction can drive cure in areas that did not receive direct UV illumination. Oxygen inhibition management: Different photoinitiator systems have different sensitivities to oxygen inhibition. A formulation combining a free-radical photoinitiator (active in the UV and somewhat susceptible to oxygen inhibition) with a cationic photoinitiator (oxygen-insensitive) may use different wavelengths to activate each component. The dual-wavelength system activates both simultaneously, combining fast bulk cure from the free-radical component with tack-free surface finish from the oxygen-insensitive cationic component. When Dual-Wavelength Systems Provide Process Advantages Thick bondlines. In adhesive layers thicker than approximately 0.5 mm, a single wavelength — particularly at shorter UV wavelengths — may cure the surface layer effectively…

Every UV curing process has a target: a specific adhesive joint that must polymerize while everything around it remains unaffected. In many production assemblies, the challenge is not just delivering UV energy to the right place — it is keeping it away from the wrong places. UV LED spot lamps are built for exactly this problem, and the combination of optical design, delivery systems, and fixturing they enable makes selective curing achievable even in highly constrained assembly geometries. The Problem Selective Curing Solves Standard UV flood lamps illuminate large areas simultaneously. For assemblies where the entire surface is accessible and the adhesive bond extends across most of it, this is ideal. For assemblies where UV must be confined to a specific zone — because adjacent components are UV-sensitive, because the surrounding substrate would be damaged by UV exposure, or because the assembly design does not allow illumination from above — flood curing is not viable. Selective area curing uses a concentrated UV output delivered precisely to the bond location, leaving adjacent regions either in shadow or receiving UV at levels too low to initiate polymerization. The requirements for selective curing are: accurate spatial delivery, controllable spot size, and sufficient irradiance at the target location without unacceptable spillover. Optical Spot Definition The fundamental mechanism of selectivity in a UV spot lamp is the concentrated exit beam from the cure head. Light exits the light guide's distal face in a cone defined by the guide's numerical aperture. At the working distance, this cone illuminates a circular area whose diameter depends on the NA, the working distance, and the diameter of the guide face. For a guide with a 1.5 mm face diameter and NA of 0.39, at 10 mm working distance the spot diameter is approximately: Spot diameter ≈ guide face diameter + 2 × working distance × tan(arcsin(NA)) ≈ 1.5 + 2 × 10 × 0.41 ≈ 9.7 mm Reducing working distance to 5 mm reduces spot diameter to approximately 5.6 mm. Adding a focusing lens at the cure head can concentrate the spot to 2–3 mm at the focal distance. This range of achievable spot sizes — from a few millimeters to approximately 10 mm for standard light guides, and smaller with focused cure heads — matches the typical range of precision adhesive bond areas in industrial assembly. Apertures for Tighter Spatial Control When the naturally diverging beam from the cure head is too large for the required bond area, a physical aperture — a plate with a precision hole — can be mounted at the cure head exit. Only UV light passing through the aperture opening reaches the substrate; the remainder is blocked by the aperture plate. Apertures define the illuminated area with sharp boundaries, allowing selective curing of a 2 mm diameter bond adjacent to a component that cannot receive UV exposure 3 mm away. The aperture material must be UV-opaque — anodized aluminum is a common choice — and withstand the UV flux at the cure head…

A UV flood lamp that delivers 3,000 mW/cm² at the center of its cure zone and 1,500 mW/cm² at the corners is not delivering uniform curing — it is delivering a dose gradient that produces variable bond quality across the illuminated area. Understanding what a uniformity specification means, how it is measured, and its practical consequences for bonded assemblies prevents process failures that are difficult to diagnose after the fact. What the Uniformity Specification Describes A UV flood lamp's uniformity specification quantifies how consistently irradiance is distributed across the defined cure area. It is typically expressed as a percentage variation or a ratio between the minimum and maximum measured irradiance within the cure zone. Common formats include: ±X%: The irradiance at any point within the cure zone is within X percent of the average. A ±10% uniformity means the measured irradiance spans a range no wider than 20% of the average value. Minimum/maximum ratio: Expressed as, for example, ≥0.85, meaning the minimum irradiance anywhere in the cure zone is at least 85% of the maximum measured irradiance. Coefficient of variation: The standard deviation of irradiance measurements across the cure zone divided by the mean, expressed as a percentage. This statistical form captures the full distribution rather than just the extremes. The cure zone itself must also be specified — it is the area within which the uniformity claim applies. An irradiance distribution that is highly uniform in a 50 × 50 mm central area may fall off significantly outside that boundary. Using the lamp to cure assemblies larger than the specified cure zone invalidates the uniformity specification. Why Uniformity Matters for Bond Quality An adhesive curing process requires both minimum irradiance and minimum dose to achieve specified mechanical properties. Non-uniformity creates zones within the cure area where irradiance is below the adhesive's minimum threshold and zones where it exceeds the nominal value. In the low-irradiance regions — particularly at corners and edges of the cure zone where irradiance often falls below the center value — two failure modes can occur: Irradiance below threshold: If local irradiance drops below the minimum required to overcome oxygen inhibition, the adhesive at that location may not cure at all, regardless of exposure time, producing a soft, tacky, or liquid region within the otherwise solid bondline. Insufficient dose: Even if local irradiance exceeds the threshold, zones with low irradiance accumulate dose more slowly. At the exposure time calibrated for the center of the cure zone, corner regions may have accumulated only 70–80% of the dose received at the center — potentially below the adhesive's minimum dose for full mechanical performance. Both failure modes can pass visual inspection and even initial handling, surfacing later as reduced bond strength, cohesive failure under mechanical or thermal loading, or delamination after environmental exposure testing. How Uniformity Is Measured Uniformity is measured using a profiling UV radiometer — an instrument that samples irradiance at multiple points across the cure zone and produces a spatial map of the distribution. Two general…

Moving a UV LED cure head a few millimeters farther from the adhesive than specified can reduce delivered irradiance enough to shift a well-qualified curing process into under-cure territory. Working distance is not a rough guideline — it is a precisely controlled process parameter, and understanding the physics behind its effect on irradiance is what allows engineers to specify tight tolerances, design effective fixturing, and diagnose process variability caused by positioning inconsistency. What Working Distance Is Working distance in a UV spot lamp system is the gap between the exit face of the cure head (or the light guide, if used without a cure head accessory) and the cure surface — the top of the adhesive or the substrate through which UV must pass. It is the distance UV light must travel after leaving the optical system before reaching the adhesive. In flood lamp systems, working distance is the gap between the exit face of the lamp array or the last optical element in the lamp assembly and the cure surface. The definition is the same in principle; the magnitudes differ because flood lamps are often designed for working distances of 10–50 mm, while spot lamp cure heads may operate at 5–25 mm. The Inverse Square Law For a point source of light emitting in free space, irradiance decreases with the square of the distance from the source: E₂ = E₁ × (d₁/d₂)² where E₁ is the irradiance at distance d₁, and E₂ is the irradiance at distance d₂. This inverse square law is exact for a point source with no optical elements. Moving from 10 mm to 20 mm doubles the working distance, and the irradiance falls to one-quarter of its value at 10 mm. Moving from 10 mm to 14.1 mm (a factor of √2) reduces irradiance by half. In practice, UV LED spot lamp systems are not perfect point sources — the light guide has a finite exit face diameter and the exit beam is shaped by coupling and focusing optics. Behavior deviates from the pure inverse square law, particularly at short working distances comparable to the exit aperture size, but the law still provides a useful approximation for estimating how irradiance changes with working distance. How Real Systems Deviate from the Inverse Square Law For a UV spot lamp with focusing optics, the irradiance profile with working distance typically peaks at or near the focal distance of the lens, where the beam converges to its smallest diameter and highest irradiance. Moving closer or farther from that point produces a larger spot with lower irradiance. The region around the focal distance where irradiance stays near its maximum — sometimes called the depth of focus — defines the range of working distances within which the process can operate without significant irradiance change; outside this range, irradiance drops more steeply. For a collimated cure head, the beam maintains a more consistent diameter over a longer working distance range, and irradiance changes more slowly with distance than for a focusing…

Numerical aperture is a single number summarizing the light-gathering and light-delivering capability of a UV light guide — yet it is routinely overlooked in lamp selection until it becomes the explanation for why an installed curing system delivers less UV power than expected. Understanding what numerical aperture means and how it interacts with the rest of the optical system turns an abstract specification into a practical selection tool. Defining Numerical Aperture Numerical aperture (NA) is a dimensionless parameter that describes the range of angles over which a light guide can accept or emit light. It is defined mathematically as: NA = n × sin(θ) where n is the refractive index of the medium surrounding the guide's entrance or exit face (typically air, with n ≈ 1.0), and θ is the half-angle of the acceptance or emission cone. In physical terms: a light guide with NA = 0.39 can accept light entering within a half-angle of approximately 23° from the guide's optical axis. Light entering at steeper, more oblique angles does not undergo total internal reflection efficiently and is lost as heat in the guide walls rather than transmitted to the output. At the output end, the same NA defines the divergence of the exiting beam: light exits in a cone with half-angle equal to arcsin(NA), spreading from the guide face as it propagates toward the cure surface. How NA Is Determined by Guide Construction For a fiber optic light guide, NA is determined by the refractive indices of the fiber core (n_core) and cladding (n_cladding): NA = √(n_core² − n_cladding²) A higher refractive index differential between core and cladding produces a higher NA — the guide accepts a wider cone of input light. Fused silica fiber light guides used in UV curing applications typically have NA values in the range of 0.22 to 0.39. For liquid light guides, the NA is determined by the refractive index of the optical fluid and the surrounding jacket material — see our comparison of liquid vs. fiber optic light guides for the full trade-off picture. High-quality liquid guides can achieve NAs up to approximately 0.59, enabling them to accept a wider cone of input light and extract more of the LED array's output than a lower-NA fiber guide of the same diameter. NA and Coupling Efficiency The coupling efficiency between an LED array and a light guide — the fraction of the lamp's UV output that actually enters and propagates through the guide to the output face — depends critically on how well the LED's emission cone is matched to the guide's acceptance cone. An LED emitting in a Lambertian pattern produces output across a wide angular range. A guide with a low NA accepts only the central portion of this emission; a guide with a higher NA accepts a larger cone and captures a higher fraction of the LED's output. The coupling optics between the LED array and the guide's proximal face shape the LED's emission cone to match the guide's acceptance angle…