An epoxy bond that fails prematurely has a reason. The failure is not random — it is the outcome of a specific deficiency in surface preparation, material selection, mixing, application, or cure, and that deficiency leaves a signature that a systematic diagnostic approach can identify. Treating bond failure as a mystery to be endured leads to repeated failures; treating it as a diagnostic problem to be solved leads to a root cause and a fix. This checklist works through the most common failure modes in order of the process sequence, so that the deficiency can be located at the step where it originated. Step 1: Examine the Failure Surface Before questioning anything else, examine the fracture surfaces of the failed bond under good lighting and, if available, low-magnification optical examination. Adhesive failure (bond broke at the substrate-adhesive interface): One surface has adhesive on it; the other is clean. This is the diagnostic signature of inadequate surface preparation, surface contamination, or a mismatch between the adhesive and the substrate. The adhesive did not wet and bond to the substrate adequately. Cohesive failure (bond broke within the adhesive itself): Both surfaces have adhesive on them. This indicates the adhesive-to-substrate bond was stronger than the adhesive's internal strength — a positive sign for surface preparation. Cohesive failure means the adhesive was mechanically overloaded, improperly mixed, under-cured, or selected at insufficient strength for the applied load. Mixed failure: Partial adhesive failure at some zones, cohesive at others. Often indicates localized contamination or surface preparation deficiency in the adhesive-failure zones. For a deeper breakdown of what drives each failure type and how the prevention strategy differs between them, see Incure's guide to interface versus cohesive epoxy bond failure. Step 2: Surface Preparation Audit If the failure was adhesive (interface failure), work through the surface preparation sequence: Was the substrate free of oil, release agents, mold release, cutting fluid, and fingerprints before bonding? Solvent degreasing with clean, lint-free wipes in a single wiping direction (not back-and-forth) is the minimum. Re-contamination from solvents that carry residue is a common error. Was an abrasion step performed to break the surface oxide and create a mechanical anchor profile? Smooth, polished, or anodized surfaces have low mechanical bonding area. Was the surface bonded within the allowable time after preparation? Freshly prepared aluminium begins to re-oxidize in hours; freshly grit-blasted steel begins to rust within four hours in humid conditions. Was a primer or adhesion promoter used for substrates known to be difficult to bond (PTFE, polyolefins, low-surface-energy plastics, aged rubber)? If you need surface preparation guidance for specific substrates or contamination scenarios, Email Us — Incure can provide substrate-specific preparation procedures and primer recommendations. Step 3: Mixing Verification For two-part epoxy adhesives, mixing error is a common failure cause that produces cohesive failure at low strength. Was the mix ratio correct? By weight and by volume are different. The product data sheet specifies the correct basis; using the wrong basis undercures the adhesive. Was mixing thorough? For manual mixing, scraping…

Voids in a potted electronic assembly represent points of failure waiting to be initiated. An air void adjacent to a high-voltage conductor provides a dielectric breakdown path at a fraction of the voltage the solid compound can withstand. A void at the underside of a component allows moisture accumulation and corrosion of the component terminations. A void in the bulk of the compound concentrates thermomechanical stress at its boundary during thermal cycling, initiating cracking that propagates toward critical conductors. The goal of the potting process is complete void elimination — every cubic millimeter of space filled with compound, with no entrapped air. In practice, complete elimination is an asymptote that production processes approach but do not always reach; the objective is to drive void size and number below the threshold at which they initiate failures within the product's service life. Why Voids Form Understanding void formation sources is the prerequisite for preventing them. Voids form by several mechanisms that must be addressed independently: Entrapped air during dispensing. When liquid compound is dispensed into an assembly housing and flows over components, air can be trapped beneath overhanging component bodies, in blind pockets, and in narrow channels between closely-spaced components. Compound flowing from one side of a component does not necessarily reach the other side before the air path under the component is sealed — particularly for low-profile components close to the PCB surface. Dissolved gas released during cure. Some compounds release dissolved gas or volatiles during cure, forming bubbles within the compound mass. Careful mixing minimizes dissolved air; using degassed raw materials reduces the problem at its source. Mixing-induced air entrapment. Manual or mechanical mixing of two-part compound introduces air by the folding and turbulence of the mixing action. Vigorous mixing — particularly with a high-speed blade mixer in an open container — entraps far more air than gentle hand-stirring or automated static mixing through a nozzle. Shrinkage voids. Compounds with significant volumetric shrinkage on cure can pull away from housing walls or component surfaces during gelation, leaving voids at the interface — an adhesion failure distinct from post-cure delamination caused by thermal cycling, but with similar void morphology at the compound-solid interface. Pre-Potting Component and Housing Preparation Void formation begins before the compound is dispensed. Several preparation steps reduce void susceptibility before potting starts. Preheat the assembly. A housing and PCB assembly at ambient temperature has air trapped in all cavities. Preheating the assembly to 40°C to 60°C before potting reduces the air volume in cavities (heated air expands and escapes before compound seals the cavity), improves compound flow by lowering viscosity on contact with the warm surface, and accelerates initial wetting of the substrate. This is particularly useful for high-temperature epoxy compounds, which run higher in viscosity than standard systems and are also more prone to exotherm-related cure defects if preheating pushes the assembly too warm before dispense. Tilt the assembly. If the housing geometry permits, tilting the assembly at an angle of 30° to 45° during compound fill…

Military electronics operate in environments that commercial and industrial specifications rarely encompass. A field radio must function after rapid transport from an arctic base to a desert forward position. Avionics in a fighter aircraft experience -55°C on the tarmac in winter and 85°C in the avionics bay at altitude under load, completing this cycle in minutes. Ground vehicle electronics on armored platforms endure sustained 125°C under-armor temperatures combined with continuous broadband vibration and thermal cycling from tracks on rough terrain. Missile seeker electronics must survive firing shock in excess of 100g and then operate precisely under aerodynamic heating during flight. The potting compound protecting the electronics in each of these systems must survive the full performance envelope — not just the worst-case temperature or the worst-case vibration separately, but all conditions in combination, repeatedly, across years of service. Why Military Applications Demand More From Potting Compounds The distinction between commercial and military requirements for potting compound is not simply higher temperature or higher vibration — it is the requirement to meet multiple extreme conditions simultaneously with documented, traceable performance. A compound that passes 150°C storage and passes vibration testing at ambient temperature may fail when vibrated at 150°C because the compound's mechanical properties at elevated temperature are no longer adequate for vibration damping. Military qualification requires testing at the intersection of conditions, not testing each condition separately. Additionally, military electronics must remain functional — not merely survive — after exposure to extreme environments. A military radio with degraded receive sensitivity after thermal cycling has failed its mission requirement even if it still transmits. Functional electrical performance testing after each environmental stress in the qualification matrix is typically required for military programs; visual inspection of the compound is necessary but not sufficient. MIL-STD-810 is the primary U.S. military environmental test standard for electronic equipment and defines the test methods for temperature, humidity, vibration, shock, and other conditions. MIL-PRF-23586 covers silicone rubber sealing and encapsulation compounds for electrical and electronic applications. Potting compounds used in military electronics programs are typically qualified against these documents, or an equivalent program-specific specification, with testing performed by a certified laboratory and data submitted with the product qualification package. Temperature Range Requirements Military electronics must operate across temperature ranges that span from the cold of arctic environments to the heat of desert and platform thermal environments. Program-specific environmental design criteria for the platform, typically derived from MIL-STD-810 climatic and operational profiles, define the required operating ranges. For airborne electronics in high-performance aircraft, the operating temperature range is typically -55°C to +85°C at the circuit card level, with storage temperature excursions to -65°C. This range is wider than most commercial applications and drives compound selection toward materials that maintain properties across the full range. At -55°C, many polymer compounds are below their Tg and fully brittle. If the compound has inadequate low-temperature elongation at break, it will crack during thermal shock or rapid temperature change, losing moisture protection and providing stress concentrations adjacent to cracked zones. Silicone compounds…

Dielectric strength — the maximum electric field intensity a material can withstand without breakdown — is the electrical property that determines whether a potting compound can provide adequate isolation between conductors in an encapsulated assembly. Every potting compound data sheet reports dielectric strength, but this value is typically measured at ambient temperature. For electronics operating at 125°C, 150°C, or higher, the ambient-temperature dielectric strength is the least relevant data point on the sheet. Dielectric strength degrades with temperature for all polymer materials, and the rate of degradation differs significantly between compound types and formulations. Selecting a high-temperature potting compound based solely on its ambient dielectric strength number is a specification error that produces inadequate isolation at service temperature — a mistake with particularly serious consequences in motor and transformer winding encapsulation, where partial discharge at operating voltage can silently erode insulation for months before a failure appears. The Physics of Dielectric Breakdown in Polymers Dielectric breakdown in a polymer potting compound occurs when the applied electric field is sufficient to mobilize charge carriers within the material and initiate a conducting path between electrodes. At ambient temperature, polymer chains are below their Tg and relatively immobile; charge carrier mobility is low and dielectric strength is at its maximum. As temperature increases toward Tg, chain segment mobility increases, the polymer softens slightly, and ion transport becomes more feasible. Above Tg, the polymer is in the rubbery state with significantly increased molecular mobility; dielectric strength decreases sharply. For a standard epoxy potting compound with Tg of 120°C, dielectric strength at 150°C — which is above the Tg — may be only 50% to 70% of the ambient-temperature value. The compound has softened, moisture absorption has increased, and ion transport is much more active than at ambient temperature. This is why ambient dielectric strength data is inadequate for specifying potting compounds in high-temperature applications. The second factor affecting dielectric strength at elevated temperature is moisture. Absorbed moisture in a potting compound increases the concentration of charge carriers (hydrogen and hydroxide ions from water dissociation) and directly reduces dielectric strength. At elevated operating temperatures, moisture diffusion into the compound is faster and equilibrium moisture content is higher than at ambient, compounding the temperature effect on dielectric performance. What Dielectric Data to Request for High-Temperature Applications For any potting compound being evaluated for service above 100°C, the dielectric strength data required for adequate specification includes: Dielectric strength at operating temperature. The compound should be conditioned at the intended service temperature and tested at temperature, not after cooling. The test configuration — parallel plate electrodes in oil, short-time test or step test per IEC 60243 or ASTM D149 — should be specified consistently to allow comparison between compounds. Dielectric strength after moisture conditioning. Conditioning specimens in humid conditions (85°C/85% relative humidity for 96 to 500 hours, depending on the standard) before high-temperature dielectric strength testing characterizes the wet-state performance. This is the worst-case scenario for many application environments and is more representative of actual service than dry-state…

Electronics deployed downhole in oil and gas wellbores operate in conditions that test the limits of available materials. Temperatures at depth in geothermal and deep oil wells routinely exceed 150°C, with some applications encountering 200°C to 250°C or higher. Pressures at well depth reach tens of megapascals. The wellbore fluid — crude oil, formation water, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and drilling mud — is aggressive and penetrating. Vibration from the drill string, acoustic tools, and pump operations is continuous. Any electronics used in logging-while-drilling, measurement-while-drilling, permanent reservoir monitoring, or production monitoring tools must function reliably in this environment, often for months between retrieval — a service demand comparable to what automotive underhood sensors face, though compressed into a far more chemically aggressive setting. The potting compound protecting those electronics is a critical element of the protection system — it must tolerate the temperature, exclude the fluids, and survive the pressure without failing over the tool's service period. The Downhole Environment: Key Threats to Electronics Temperature. Well temperature increases with depth at a geothermal gradient of approximately 25°C to 30°C per kilometer. At 5 to 7 km depth, ambient temperatures reach 150°C to 210°C. High-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) wells may exceed 230°C at bottom-hole temperature. Electronics in measurement-while-drilling tools must survive and operate at these temperatures during the entire drilling operation, which may last days to weeks at depth. Pressure. Hydrostatic pressure at well depth creates a compressive load on sealed electronic housings. A tool at 5 km depth in a water-based mud column experiences approximately 50 MPa hydrostatic pressure. Potting compound within sealed housings must not extrude, crack, or separate from housing walls under this compressive load, as any breach allows wellbore fluid ingress. Chemical exposure. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) in sour gas environments is both toxic and chemically aggressive to metals and polymers. Formation water with dissolved chlorides at elevated temperature creates a highly corrosive electrolyte. CO₂ dissolved in formation water creates carbonic acid. Drilling muds contain barite, clay, and chemical additives that contact the tool exterior. Potting compound exposed to any of these agents through a housing seal breach must resist swelling, softening, and chemical degradation. Vibration and shock. Drill string vibration in rotary drilling generates broadband vibration that is transmitted to electronic subs in the drill collar. Bit impact against hard formation generates shock pulses that can reach hundreds of g in amplitude. Electronic components and their solder connections must survive this loading within the encapsulated assembly. Material Requirements for Downhole Potting Standard electronics potting compounds — even high-temperature industrial grades — typically fail to meet the downhole specification. The three fundamental requirements that the compound must meet are: Temperature stability to 175°C or above. The compound's Tg must provide adequate margin above the maximum downhole temperature, accounting for moisture absorption in the well environment, which reduces Tg through plasticization. A dry Tg of 200°C may provide acceptable margin for a 175°C downhole application; a dry Tg of 150°C does not. The same Tg-margin logic that governs compound selection…

The heat generated inside a curing potting compound can reach temperatures that damage the very electronics the compound is intended to protect. This phenomenon — exothermic cure — is a consequence of the chemistry of thermoset polymer cross-linking, and it occurs in every two-part epoxy and many other potting systems to some degree. In thin pours or small volumes, the heat dissipates quickly and peak temperatures remain acceptable. In large pour volumes, confined geometries, or fast-cure formulations, the internal temperature of the curing compound can exceed 150°C, 180°C, or higher — enough to damage polymer housings, melt low-melting-point solder alloys, destroy temperature-sensitive components, and permanently degrade the compound itself. Understanding the exotherm mechanism and the factors that control its severity enables engineers to prevent thermal damage rather than discover it during the first production run — the same qualification discipline that governs selecting a potting compound for service above 150°C in the first place. The Exotherm Mechanism Epoxy curing reactions — the cross-linking of epoxide groups with the hardener — are exothermic. Energy is released as each covalent bond forms, and because thousands of cross-links form per unit volume of compound in a short time, the cumulative heat release can be substantial. In an insulated environment, this heat cannot escape and accumulates in the curing mass. The critical property governing exotherm peak temperature is the thermal mass of the potting compound volume relative to its surface area. A thin pour — 5 mm deep in a shallow tray — has a high surface-to-volume ratio and heat escapes rapidly to the surrounding environment; the peak temperature is low. A deep pour — 50 mm or more in a confined enclosure — has a low surface-to-volume ratio; heat accumulates in the core of the curing mass, the core temperature rises, the cure reaction accelerates (reaction rate increases with temperature, producing more heat), and the temperature runaway continues until the reaction is complete. This self-accelerating sequence can drive peak temperatures far above the ambient cure temperature. Additionally, heat generated in the compound transfers to the encapsulated assembly. Components surrounded by curing compound absorb heat from the compound, reach temperatures determined by the compound peak temperature, and can fail if that temperature exceeds their rating. What Exotherm Damage Looks Like Compound self-damage. If the compound exceeds its rated temperature during cure, the fully cured polymer has degraded mechanical and electrical properties compared to a properly cured material. The compound may be discolored (yellowed or darkened), have visible thermal stress cracks from shrinkage during rapid cooling after the exotherm peak, and have reduced Tg due to incomplete cross-linking in degraded regions. Component damage. Temperature-sensitive components — electrolytic capacitors (typically rated to 85°C or 105°C), plastic-packaged ICs, crystal oscillators, and film-based capacitors — can be damaged by exotherm temperatures, which is one reason compound selection for hot-environment electronics has to account for cure behavior, not just the compound's finished-state service rating. Electrolytic capacitors exposed to temperatures above their rating suffer electrolyte loss and reduced capacitance; this…

Motor windings and transformer windings operate under conditions that combine electrical stress, thermal cycling, and moisture exposure in a way that degrades insulation systems over time. The winding wire is coated with a thin layer of enamel insulation that must maintain dielectric integrity for the service life of the device; the space between wires, between layers, and between the winding and the core contains air gaps that are susceptible to moisture, contamination, and partial discharge. Potting compound fills these void spaces, eliminating the air gaps that allow partial discharge, excluding moisture that degrades enamel insulation, and conducting heat away from the winding wire to the surrounding structure more efficiently than air-filled gaps allow — provided the encapsulation process itself achieves void-free fill through the fine interstices of the winding. For motors and transformers operating at elevated temperature, the potting compound must itself withstand the thermal environment — both the ambient temperature of the installation and the heat generated by winding losses during operation — while also absorbing the vibration and thermal cycling loads transmitted through the motor frame or transformer housing during service. Why Air Voids in Windings Are Damaging Air gaps in winding assemblies are failure initiation sites for several distinct mechanisms. Partial discharge — low-energy electrical discharge within air voids at high electric field — erodes the enamel wire insulation surface progressively, ultimately producing a dielectric failure even though the bulk enamel thickness appears intact. Partial discharge is particularly active at elevated temperatures where the dielectric strength of air decreases and at higher operating voltages. In motors and transformers operating above 1 kV, partial discharge suppression by void elimination is a primary objective of winding encapsulation. Moisture absorbed into air voids reduces the dielectric strength of the void and increases the conductivity of any contamination present — dust, oil vapor, or carbon from arcing — allowing leakage currents between conductors. In variable-speed motor drives with high dv/dt switching waveforms, moisture-contaminated voids adjacent to the winding surface are at increased risk of partial discharge initiation. Heat transfer from winding wire to the surrounding structure is also limited by air-filled gaps. Air has thermal conductivity of approximately 0.025 W/m·K; potting compounds provide 0.2 to 1.5 W/m·K depending on filler level and composition. Filled compound in the winding gaps reduces winding hot-spot temperature for a given operating current, which directly extends insulation life by the Arrhenius relationship — every 10°C reduction in insulation temperature approximately doubles the insulation service life. Temperature Classes for Winding Potting Compounds Electrical insulation systems are rated by thermal class, defined by the maximum continuous operating temperature at which the insulation system maintains adequate dielectric integrity over a 20,000-hour service life. IEC 60085 defines thermal classes relevant to motor and transformer insulation: Class B (130°C): standard motors and transformers in moderate environments Class F (155°C): industrial motors, variable-speed drives, medium-duty transformers Class H (180°C): high-duty-cycle motors, traction motors, aerospace, and power electronics Class C (above 220°C): specialized high-temperature applications Potting compound used in winding encapsulation must be…

Vibration and thermal cycling are the two dominant mechanical failure drivers for electronics operating in harsh environments, and they act simultaneously in most industrial and transportation applications. Vibration generates fatigue loading at solder joints, component leads, and connector contacts, accumulating damage that eventually opens an electrical connection. Thermal cycling imposes repeated thermomechanical stress from differential expansion between dissimilar materials — component packages, PCB laminate, solder, and housing — that cracks solder joints and lifts bond wires. Potting compound encapsulating the assembly addresses both mechanisms — the same pair of stresses that dominate failure analysis for automotive underhood sensors — but the compound properties required for vibration protection and thermal cycling protection pull in different directions. Understanding this tension is the starting point for selecting a compound that handles both adequately in high-temperature service. How Potting Compound Protects Against Vibration Vibration damages electronics through two mechanisms: fatigue at mechanical attachment points and resonance amplification. Solder joints, wire bonds, and component leads are rigid connections between components and the PCB; repeated deflection of the board under vibration flexes these connections, accumulating fatigue damage that progresses to cracking and electrical failure. At resonant frequencies of the PCB or the component assembly, vibration amplitude is amplified — a board with an unloaded resonant frequency of 200 Hz may experience amplitudes at resonance that are ten times the applied base excitation amplitude. Potting compound protects against vibration by filling the void space around components and constraining their relative movement. A fully encapsulated PCB assembly behaves as a single composite block under vibration, with the compound contributing damping and increasing the effective stiffness of the assembly. This raises the resonant frequency of the encapsulated assembly above the range of the applied vibration spectrum and reduces vibration amplitude at any given frequency. For effective vibration protection, the potting compound must be well-bonded to both the PCB surface and the housing walls. A compound that has delaminated from the housing due to thermal cycling no longer constrains the assembly — the assembly can move freely within the housing and vibration protection is lost. Adhesion durability through the full temperature range is therefore as important for vibration protection as it is for moisture exclusion. How Thermal Cycling Damages Encapsulated Assemblies Thermal cycling imposes displacement on every interface between materials with different coefficients of thermal expansion. A ceramic capacitor (CTE ~7 × 10⁻⁶/°C) bonded to FR4 PCB (CTE ~18 × 10⁻⁶/°C in-plane) through solder joints experiences shear displacement at the solder interface with each temperature cycle. The magnitude of this displacement is proportional to the component size, the temperature range, and the CTE difference. Accumulated fatigue from these displacements eventually causes solder joint cracking. Potting compound adds a third material to this system, with its own CTE and modulus. A rigid potting compound with high CTE (typical for filled epoxy: 40 to 60 × 10⁻⁶/°C) constrains the PCB during thermal cycling, modifying the stress distribution at solder joints. If the compound's thermal expansion generates higher stress at the solder joint…

Sensors in the automotive underhood environment are among the most thermally stressed electronic components in any commercial product. Engine coolant temperature sensors, intake air temperature sensors, exhaust gas oxygen sensors, crankshaft and camshaft position sensors, and knock sensors all operate in a space where ambient temperature ranges from sub-zero cold starts to sustained 125°C or higher during engine operation. Oil, coolant, transmission fluid, fuel, and aggressive cleaning chemicals contact sensor housings regularly. Vibration from the engine itself is transmitted through every mount and harness in the system. The potting compound encapsulating the electronics inside these sensors must protect against all of these conditions simultaneously and resist the same combination of vibration and thermal cycling that damages electronics in other transportation and industrial equipment — not for months, but for the full vehicle service life that automotive manufacturers specify, which commonly exceeds 150,000 miles or 15 years. What the Underhood Environment Demands Temperature. Underhood temperature varies by sensor location. Sensors mounted on or near the exhaust manifold, turbocharger, or cylinder head surface may see component temperatures of 150°C to 175°C in sustained operation. Sensors in the intake air path or on the engine periphery may operate at 120°C to 140°C. Cold-soak temperatures in winter climates can reach -40°C. The full thermal cycling range from cold soak to maximum operating temperature imposes repeated thermomechanical stress on the encapsulated assembly. Fluid exposure. Engine oil, coolant, brake fluid, power steering fluid, and fuel contact sensor housings. If the housing seal leaks or the potting compound is exposed at a breach in the housing, the compound must resist penetration and swelling in these fluids without losing adhesion to the housing wall or the encapsulated components. Resistance to automotive fluids is a required property for underhood potting compounds, not a convenience feature. Vibration. Engine vibration is transmitted through the vehicle structure at frequencies from 20 Hz to over 1 kHz. Sensors mounted directly to engine blocks or brackets bolted to the engine experience the full vibration spectrum. Potting compound must absorb vibrational energy without itself cracking or fatiguing, and without transmitting amplified stress to wire bonds, solder joints, or component leads. Chemical exposure. Battery acid vapor, salt from winter road treatment, and engine cleaning agents with strong surfactants or alkaline pH contact underhood surfaces. Potting compounds exposed to these agents must resist surface degradation, swelling, and adhesion loss. Why Standard Potting Compounds Are Insufficient General-purpose epoxy potting compounds rated to 100°C to 125°C are not appropriate for the underhood environment. At the upper end of the temperature range — 150°C or higher at some sensor locations — these compounds exceed their Tg, soften, and lose the mechanical and dielectric properties that protect the encapsulated electronics. A softened compound no longer damps vibration effectively, may develop gaps at the housing-compound interface as it creeps under load, and has reduced dielectric strength that compromises isolation between circuit conductors. Polyurethane potting compounds offer flexibility and good low-temperature performance but typically have service temperature ratings of 100°C to 130°C —…

The 150°C threshold separates the large catalog of general-purpose electronic potting compounds from the narrower set of materials that can actually maintain their protective properties in sustained high-temperature service. Most standard epoxy and polyurethane potting compounds reach their glass transition temperature (Tg) before or at 150°C, softening and losing the mechanical and dielectric properties that make them protective. Electronics that must operate continuously or intermittently above this threshold — from automotive underhood sensors to downhole tools — require deliberate compound selection based on material chemistry, key property data, and the specific demands of the application environment. Getting this selection right before production begins avoids costly failures and redesign late in the product development cycle. Why Tg Is the Starting Point The glass transition temperature of a cured potting compound is the temperature at which the polymer matrix transitions from a glassy, rigid state to a rubbery, compliant state. Below Tg, the compound is mechanically stiff, dimensionally stable, and maintains its electrical properties. Above Tg, the compound softens, CTE increases sharply, and mechanical properties drop significantly. For a potting compound to protect electronics at 150°C, the Tg of the cured system must be substantially above 150°C — the common rule of thumb is at least 20°C to 30°C margin, so Tg should be at or above 170°C to 180°C for a 150°C service temperature. This requirement immediately narrows the candidate material pool. Standard epoxy potting systems cured with cycloaliphatic or polyamide curing agents achieve Tg in the 80°C to 130°C range. High-temperature epoxy systems using anhydride, aromatic amine, or novolac curing agents achieve Tg from 150°C to over 200°C, depending on formulation. Silicone potting compounds do not have a conventional Tg in this sense — they remain flexible well above 200°C — but have different property profiles that may or may not suit the application. Evaluating Candidate Materials For each candidate compound, the following properties should be obtained from the manufacturer's technical data sheet and verified against application requirements: Continuous service temperature. The compound's rated continuous service temperature must equal or exceed the application maximum. Verify whether the rating reflects Tg, thermal stability of the cured polymer, or empirical service life data. Thermal stability ratings from TGA (thermogravimetric analysis) indicate the onset of decomposition but are not the same as the service temperature for a functional electronic assembly. Dielectric strength at operating temperature. Dielectric strength — the voltage per unit thickness the compound can withstand without electrical breakdown — decreases with increasing temperature for all polymers, sometimes dropping to half its ambient-temperature value or lower well before the compound's rated service temperature is reached. Dielectric strength at the application's maximum operating temperature, not just at ambient, must exceed the electrical isolation requirement of the assembly. This data should be requested from the manufacturer if it is not on the standard data sheet. CTE and modulus. Rigid high-temperature epoxy compounds have high elastic modulus (3 to 8 GPa) and CTE values that mismatch with ceramic components. At 150°C service temperature, thermal cycling…